Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes Notes 1 Caffery to Hughes, July 11, 1924, Records of the Department of State Relating to Political Relations Between the United States and Japan, 1910–1929. United States Department of State Decimal File 711.945/1205. Quoted in Lee Arne Makela, Japanese Attitudes towards the United States Immigration Act of 1924, Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University (1973), 197. 2 See for example, Miwa Kimitada, Nichibei Kiki no Kigen to Hainichi Iminho [The Origins of the Japan-U.S. Crisis and the Anti-Japanese Immigration Act] (Tokyo, Ronsosha, 1997); Yoshida Tadao, Kokujoku: Kyojitsu no ‘Hainichi’ Iminho no Kiseki [National Humiliation: the trajectory of the truth and false of the ‘anti-Japanese’ Immigration Act] (Tokyo, Keizai Ohrai sha, 1983); Izumi Hirobe, Japanese Pride, American Prejudice (Palo Alto, CA, Stanford University Press, 2001); Minohara Toshihiro, Hainichi Iminho to Nichibei Kankei [The Anti-Japanese Immigration Act and Japan-U.S. Relations] (Tokyo, Iwanami Shoten, 2002). 3 Makela, 189–204. 4 Andrew Higson, The concept of national cinema, Screen, 30(4) (Autumn 1999), 37. 5 Takubo Tadanori, Hainichi Iminho de Nichibei ha shototsu no hohkouhe: Ryokoku no Kanjoron ga zenmen ni [The anti-Japanese Immigration Act led to Japan-U.S. conflict: emotional arguments predominate in both nations], Jiyû (2002), 34–42. 6 The 1924 Immigration Act has generated numerous works on both sides of the Pacific. See for instance: Roger Daniels, The Politics of Prejudice: the anti-Japanese movement in California and the struggle for Japanese exclusion (Berkeley, CA, University of California Press, 1977); Yuji Ichioka, The Issei: the world of the first generation Japanese immigrants 1885–1924 (New York, Free Press, 1988); Hirobe and Makela. While American scholarship has focused on the impact it had on the Japanese immigrants, the Japanese scholarship has also documented the response by the Japanese public. For works on the Japanese response, in addition to those listed in note 2, see Hasegawa Yuichi (ed.) Taishoki Nihon no America Ninshiki [Perceptions of America in Taisho Japan] (Tokyo, Keio University Press, 2001); Miwa Kimitada, Kakusareta Peri no shirohata: Nichibei kankei no imeiji ron teki seishinshi teki kenkyu [Perry's Hidden White Flag: the perspective and psychological studies of Japan–U.S. Relations] (Tokyo, Sophia University Press, 1999); Sawada Jiro, Kindai Nihonjin no America kan: Nichiro senso igo wo chushin ni [Perceptions of the U.S. by Japanese in the Modern Era: since the Russo-Japanese War] (Tokyo, Keio University Press, 1999); Yamakura Akihiro, ‘National humiliation’: anti-American reactions in Japan to the Immigration Act of 1924, Tenri Daigaku Gakuho, 175 (1994), 95–116; Jon Thares Davidann, Cultural Diplomacy in U.S.–Japanese Relations, 1919–1941 (New York, Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 95–102. 7 Tokyo Nichinichi Shimbun, June 1, 1924, Morning edition; Tokyo Nichinichi Shimbun, June 5, 1924. Morning edition; Tokyo Nichinichi Shimbun, June 8, 1924, Morning edition. For other articles reporting about the impact of the anti-Japanese Immigration Act, see Tamai Kiyoshi Kenkyukai, Hainichi Iminho to Nihon no Masu Media [The Anti-Japanese Immigration Act and the Japanese Mass Media] (Tokyo, Keio University, Faculty of Law, Political Science Department, Tamai Kiyoshi Kenkyukai, 1996). 8 Tokyo Nichinichi Shimbun, June 16, 1924. Hiding their ears with their hair was synonymous for supporting western modern hairstyles. 9 Boycott Virtually at End: Word Passed Around in Japan to Remove Ban on American Goods; Protection for Film Showings, Los Angeles Times, June 14, 1924. 10 Makela, 187–189. 11 Makela, 191. 12 Katsudo Zasshi (July 1924), 43. 13 Katsudo Zasshi (August 1924), 36. 14 Katsudo Kurabu (August 1924), 104. 15 Hirobe, 34. 16 Benshi was a narrator during the silent film era. Makela, 186. These benshi formed an organization called ‘The Society for Not Translating American Films.’ 17 Katsudo Kurabu (August 1924), 102. 18 According to another source, 575 American films were shown, while 537 Japanese films, and 60 European films were exhibited. Nihon Eiga Nenkan [Japanese Film Annuals] Taisho 13–14 edition (Tokyo, Asahi Shimbun, 1925). Quoted in Yamamoto Kikuo, Nihon Eiga ni okeru Gaikoku Eiga no Eikyo [Foreign Cinematic Influences on Japanese Cinema] (Tokyo, Waseda University Press, 1988), 210–211. Various sources report different statistics, but roughly the number of American films shown were not too different from that of Japanese films shown in Japan. 19 The number of American films exhibited in Japan skyrocketed in the 1910s from approximately 70 films in 1913, to 170 films in 1914, 200 films in 1915, and approximately 460 films in 1916. Yamamoto, 210. 20 Kinema Jumpo, 162 (June 11, 1924), 20. 21 Eiga Shincho (May 1924). 22 Yamamoto, 212. 23 Osaka shi Shakaibu Chosa ka [Osaka City Social Department Survey Division] ed. Yoka Seikatsu no Kenkyu[A Study of Leisure Life]: Rodo Chosa Hokoku no. 19 [Labor Survey Report, no. 19] (Kyoto, Kobundo, 1923), 25–26. 24 William Victor Strauss, Foreign distribution of American motion pictures, Harvard Business Review, 8 (1930), 309, quoted in Ruth Vasey, The World According to Hollywood, 1918–1939 (Madison, WI, The University of Wisconsin Press, 1997), 70. While the percentage of Hollywood films shown in Japan is listed as 30% in this particular source, other sources have generally shown that about half of the movies shown in Japan in the mid-1920s were Hollywood movies. See Yamamoto, p. 210. 25 Some have gone as far as requesting exorbitant rental costs of 4,500 yen/week in their contracts with individual movie theaters. Katsudo Zasshi (July 1924), pp. 40–43. 26 Katsudo Kurabu (July 1924), 38–39. 27 Katsudo Kurabu (July 1924), 37–38. 28 Katsudo Kurabu (July 1924), 40–41. 29 J.H. Seidelman (Paramount Foreign Department), memo to Frederick Herron, 28 November 1928, Electrical Research File, reel 4, Motion Pictures Producers and Distributors Association Archive, quoted in Vasey, 85. Although the statistics is from 1927, it is hard to imagine the proportion would have been significantly different in 1924. 30 Nikkatsu studios had 14 films from Fox studios in their storage, while Fox Japan had 23 films in their storage. Kinema Jumpo 162 (June 11, 1924), 20. 31 Kinema Jumpo (June 11, 1924), 20. 32 Katsudo Kurabu (July 1924), 39. 33 Katsudo Kurabu (July 1924), 39–40. 34 For European film clubs and magazines, see David Bordwell, On the History of Film Styles (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1987), 19–27. 35 For early film journalism in Japan, see Joanne Bernardi, Writing in Light: the silent scenario and the Japanese pure film movement (Detroit, MI, Wayne State University Press, 2001), 167–204. 36 Motochi Haruhiko, Nihon Eiga Zasshi Tiatoru Souran [Title Directory of Japanese Film Periodicals] (Tokyo, Waizu Shuppan, 2003). 37 Bernardi, 169. 38 Chapter 7, Motion picture story magazine and the gendered construction of the movie fan, in Kathryn Fuller, At the Picture Show: small-town audiences and the creation of movie fan culture (Charlottesville, VA, University of Virginia Press, 1996), 133–149. 39 Shinhanagata (August 1924), 34. 40 Nikkatsu Gaho (June 1924), 10. 41 Nikkatsu Gaho (August 1924), 56–57; Katsudo Zasshi (July 1924), 40–43. 42 Shochiku Gaho (August 1924), 30–31. 43 Shinhanagata (August 1924), 32. Shinhanagata was published by Shochiku Kamata. 44 Nikkatsu Gaho (August 1924), 56–57. 45 Shochiku Gaho (August 1924), 26–27. 46 Kinema Jumpo (June 21, 1924), 24. 47 Katsudo Kurabu (August 1924), 130. 48 Katsudo Kurabu (July 1924), 34–36. 49 Kinema Jumpo (June 21, 1924), 24. 50 Eiga Kenkyu, 1(1) (1924), 53. 51 Tokyo Asahi Shimbun, June 25, 1924. 52 Washington Post, June 25, 1924. 53 Stenographic Records from the Budget Committee First Division regarding the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, in the House of Representatives of the 49th session of the Imperial Diet. Dai 49 kai gikai, Teikoku Gikai Shugiin Iin Kaigiroku 39 (Kyoto, Rinsen Shoten, 1986) (hereafter TGSIK 39), 124. 54 Stenographic Records from the Budget Committee Second Division regarding the Ministry of Home Affairs, in the House of Representatives of the 49th session of the Imperial Diet. TGSIK 39, 159. 55 Makela, 196. 56 Tokyo Asahi Shimbun, July 2, 1924. 57 New York Times, July 13, 1924, E1. 58 Tokyo Asahi Shimbun, July 12, 1924. 59 Minami Hiroshi, Taisho Bunka [Taisho Culture] 1905–1927 (Tokyo, Keiso Shobo, 2001, 1st edition, 1965), 29. http://www.ryok.co.jp/20th/a23.htm (Access date: March 28, 2005). http://www.ucatv.ne.jp/∼shuumei/20seiki/1924.htm (Access date: March 28, 2005) 60 Tokyo Asahi Shimbun, July 1, 1924, 2. 61 Katsudo Sekai (September, 1924), 47. 62 The manager of Chiyoda-kan in Tokyo confessed that he actually wanted to get out of the boycott before the agreement was made public, but was pressured by Nikkatsu and Shochiku representatives to remain in the pact. Katsudo Sekai (September 1924), 47. 63 Katsudo Sekai (September 1924), 78. 64 Katsudo Zasshi (July 1924), 38. 65 Kinema Jumpo (June 21, 1924), 24. 66 Kerry Segrave, American Films Abroad: Hollywood's domination of the world's movie screens (Jefferson, NC, McFarland & Company, 1997), 284–285. 67 See Vasey and Segrave. 68 As Vasey and others point out, Hollywood films were never exhibited in the same manner in different places. Censorship by local authorities, both domestically and internationally, caused certain portions of the film to be deleted and re-edited and altered the experience of the audiences. As the Birmingham School has persuasively argued, audiences also had the agency to interpret the film within their own cultural context. Hollywood was keen to these differences outside of the States since the beginning of the industry, and often accommodated certain needs and preferences. The Japanese authorities and benshi were certainly influential in altering Hollywood films to accommodate their needs. But the significance of this boycott was that the Japanese film industry took the ultimate stand towards Hollywood by trying to stop Hollywood film exhibition all together. 69 Miwa Kimitada, 1924 Iminho no seiritsu to beika boikotto: Kobe shi no baai [The passing of the 1924 Immigration Act and American goods boycott: a case study of Kobe City], in Hosoya Chihiro (ed.) Taiheiyo Ajia ken no kokusai keizai funso shi [The Contentious History of International Economy in the Asian Pacific Rim] (Tokyo, Tokyo University Press, 1983), 157–159. In 1923, approximately 5.8% of American automobile export was to Japan, and therefore would not have had a significant impact on the American automobile industry. Also from Miwa, 158. 70 As is often the case, governmental policies regulating popular culture do not necessarily succeed. Even during WWII, it is well known that people in Japan continued to play American baseball by changing all the baseball jargon from English to an awkward Japanese translation. Since complete cultural rejection and banning is not even possible during wartime, how could a boycott have been successfully led by industrial leaders? In a sense, the boycott movement was doomed from the beginning. 71 Segrave, 32–58. 72 Thomas Cushman, Notes from Underground: rock music counterculture in Russia (Albany, NY, State University of New York Press, 1995); Marc Steinberg, When politics goes pop: on the intersections of popular and political culture and the case of Serbian student protests, Social Movement Studies, 3(1) (April 2004), 3–29. 73 Rob Kroes, European Anti-Americanism: what's new? The Journal of American History, 93(2) (September 2006), 426.